Organizational Decision Making Approaches

Organizational Decision Making Approaches Introduction The main focus of this paper is about different approaches in making decisions in a business or company. Followed by insight into the process of making decision, and some influential factors. Finally, an assessment of manager approaches to risk and uncertainty in decision making is included too. Decision- making approachs The literature is rich in theories regarding decision making. Three main theories will be discussed and explained . they are as follow: the rational approach, naturalistic approach, and multiple-perspectives approach. The rational approach. In this theory the manager is expected to be fully aware about the whole situation before taking decision and at the same time to be rational (Turpin and Marais 2006). There are few elements must be available to facilitate the rational decision-making process (Turpin and Marais 2006). These elements are given by Simon ( 1997) : Intelligence : picking the right moment to take a decision. Design: creating, carrying out, and deep analyzing for all actions possibilities. Selecting : picking one choice from all available choices. Reviewing : analyzing possible consequences of the chosen course. (Simon 1960). In typical rationality, it is expected that the decision maker is aware of all possible choices, outcomes, have clear vision and methodology in prioritizing the outcomes, and be able to compare the outcomes and selecting the best (Kreitner, Kinicki et al. 2001). During the choice process, each possibility is linked to numerical value and the possibility with the highest value is determined to be the best choice (Turpin and Marais 2006). Naturalistic decision- making approach The concept of this theory is to put everything in its natural context before understanding and analyzing anything (Turpin and Marais 2006). What makes this theory unique from similar descriptive approaches is its empirical background (Turpin and Marais 2006). Recognition –Primed Decision (RPD) (Klein 1998) approach is the latest update of this theory. The RPD has been introduced by Gary Klein. He analyzed around six hundreds decisions taken in critical situations by ordinary and specialized people like doctors, military generals etc.. (Turpin and Marais 2006). IN RPD, experiences plays major role and the situation evaluation ability increases with the more experience the decision maker posses (Klein 1998). Based on his own previous experience the decision maker can assess the situation and what direction thing can take and then determines which choice to take. Once the plan has been implemented and things take unfamiliar course , the decision maker could collect new information and modify his decision (Turpin and Marais 2006). multiple-perspectives approach this approach has been presented by Mitroff and Linstone (1993) as an attempt to study a problem from all available perspectives (Mitroff and Linstone 1993). This approach has used Singer and Churchman’s (1971) idea of unbounded systems thinking, which considers any conflict is not isolated from any other conflicts (Churchman 1971, Turpin and Marais 2006). Perspectives in this approach are being categorized into three main areas. These areas are: technical, individual, and organizational (Turpin and Marais 2006). Technical refers to information collecting process in order to understand the system (Turpin and Marais 2006). Although some projects could be seen as rational or objective assumption of the situation, variety of technical perspectives could be obtained as a result of diverse analysts (Turpin and Marais 2006). Thus, it is highly recommended to develop and generate several technical perspectives of a system. Analyzing of major key-players and stakeholder to maximum limit is required to guarantee a comprehensive coverage of all possible organizational and individual aspects or perspectives (Turpin and Marais 2006). Despite of some decisions appears to be as brilliant and marvelous decisions , ethically these decisions are not accepted. Thus, In addition to three categories mentioned above, ethical perspectives should be always calculated (Mitroff and Linstone 1993). Decision-making process in depth Decision making process is a formula composed of two phases. The first phase is or expansive and the second is convergent (Russo and Schoemaker 2002). The first phase focuses on gathering and studying all possible decisions. The second phase is about eliminating some choices and coming up with one final decision (Russo and Schoemaker 2002, Turpin and Marais 2006). Decision makers usually the follow several different strategies. For example, creating several teams; within the company; with different approaches to coordinate and communicate , and come up with possible solutions. Another strategy is intuitive (Turpin and Marais 2006). Is this scenario, the subconscious plays vital role in the developing of some solutions. There are some similarities between the expansive stage and the design phase of the rational model of Simon’s (1977) and Mitrov and Linstones (1993) model of multiple perspectives style (Turpin and Marais 2006). In the divergent phase there are two possible scenarios. The first is when the person who is going to take the decision is reluctant and does not have the decisiveness or enough courage to live with uncertainties of his decision. Then the phase will be put on hold to the last second. The second scenario is when the decision maker is confident enough the convergent phase will not take long time and the decision is taken on the spot. However, there is very important factor in the convergent phase which is the balance factor. The balance factor means to be ready to receive and act accordingly to any new information. These information might not delay the speed of making the decision necessarily, even if they could influence it. On the other hand , in certain situations the balance factor might cause some disturbance in the convergent factor and lead the decision maker back to the expansive phase again. The decision making process is under the influence of many variables. For example , the sophistication of the conflict, limited time available, and surrounding environment (Turpin and Marais 2006). For instance, in dynamic and continuously changing environment such business the exploratory and convergent stages might be squeezed into one phase due to the time limit. Decision making influential factors These factors are as follow (Turpin and Marais 2006): full and comprehensive evaluation of the situation understanding the situation and putting everything thing in its context. Categorizing company processes into established frameworks, and appreciation of the value systems of people. Presenting data Overloading any decision maker with information could result in putting him/her in chaos. Effective organizing in of the information in elegant style could save the decision maker time and fasten the process . Implementing technology Nowadays, technology provides useful tools that can lead straight to the point and helps in analyzing the situation. Managerial Decision Making Under Risk and Uncertainty Risk in definition is a ( threat to success)(Chapman and Ward 2007). Risk importance comes from the fact it is inseparable part of any project or business plan and can be either positive or negative (March and Shapira 1987, RIPLOVà  2007) . While negative risk mean too low chances in success, positive risk equals great chances in getting successful results. Risk management main duty is to decrease risk possibilities in any project or business plan through systemic approach (RIPLOVà  2007). Attitudes to risk Attitudes to risk can be classified into three areas. These attitudes are neutral, in favor of, and overter (Boehlje and Eidman 1984). Averse risk person prefers to lose some possible revenue or gain in order to reduce risk probabilities. On the other hand, Risk pron- person has the attitude of accepting higher risk potential to gain extra. The risk neutral person has one main target or goal which is not to make huge outcome, but to establish sustainable gain on the long run. This person does not have that much worry about huge losses as long he is getting what he wants (Kaan 2002). to achieve successful decision planning and making , the decision maker must understand his own risk attitude and utilize it along other capabilities he has (Kaan 2002). Risk mamagment Risk management is well established method of how to identify the risk , analysis risk probabilities, track and assess risk continuously, and come out with best solutions to control the risk and reduce its influence or impact (Leonard 1999, RIPLOVà  2007). Leonard (1999) has divided the risk management process into 4 stages. These phases are as follow: Planning: Includes putting strategy; aim and targets, evaluating process, executing, and supervising actions; locating recourses, activates, and duties; setting up a criteria to track risk elements; and continuous and regular documentation and organize information (Leonard 1999). Risk assessment: The aim of risk assessment is to identify and analysis ; continuously, all possible risks linked to the system, as long the system is being active. The main purpose of risk identifying is recognize risks of concern. That could be achieved through identifying potential uncertainty/risk causes. Then converting uncertainty to risk. After that, quantifying risk ,creating probabilities, and prioritizing risk factors (Leonard 1999). Once identifying process is finished, the analyzing process starts. Risk analyzing process goal is to locate risk causes, evaluate the risk consequences, and what is the best substitutes. In addition to that, selecting which risk to be followed and what criteria to overcome that risk (Leonard 1999). Risk handling Risk mitigation is to follow planning and assessing risk. That can be done through many ways, such as, avoiding risk, controlling risk, and transferring risk (Leonard 1999). Monitoring and feedback: Supervising the progress of the risk assessment and collecting feedback about possible emerging risks. The outcome is yet to be informed to all participated facilities, so the integrity and smooth of the whole process is protected from risks (Leonard 1999).

Amandla Essay

These struggles are depicted through music. Upon further research, I discovered Amandla is a Nguni word meaning power. Amandla was produced by Sherry Simpson Dean and Lee Hirsch. The film is shown in chronological order, and also augmented with archival footage from historical events. Blacks in South Africa were denied many basic human rights while the world ignored. In 1948, the Afrikaner Nationalist arose, and during the 1950’s, apartheid policies were being implemented. Black South Africans were taken from their homes and forced to live in townships, where they had to carry passbooks, were meaninglessly tortured and killed, and also could be arrested for no reason at all. Although their freedom was inhibited, they expressed their pain through song. Currently, despite the lingering problems within South Africa, blacks and whites live amongst each other. The movie pays great homage to the songs of protest that halted Apartheid. Amandla begins with Prime Minister Verwoerd declaring racial segregation in 1948. It is said to be â€Å"a policy of good-neighborliness. † Vuyisile Mini, a composer who’s creation of protest songs eventually led to his hanging, is also being exhumed from his grave. Scenes from the Sharpeville Massacre, the Soweto uprising, and Nelson Mandela’s joyous election to the office of President in 1994 are all depicted in great detail. Mini is given a proper burial at the end of the film. The film explains how the songs touched people different from speeches or demonstrations. Different stages of the struggle for equality brought upon different songs. For example, Mini’s song â€Å"Beware Vorwoerd† and Vilakazi’s â€Å"Meadowlands. † These songs, and many others, showed how diligent the South African people were about their cause, and also was a symbol of the energy they had in completing their mission. Although music is a major aspect of the film, the interviews with those who had first-hand experience to the events. Many (like Abdullah Ibrahim, Hugh Masekela, and Miriam Makeba) were sent to prison or exiled. They spoke in great detail of how homesick they were and how hurtful it was not to be able to return to South Africa. White police officers and executioners are even interviewed. The climax of the film is Nelson Mandela’s release from prison with thousands of people happily singing and cheering his return from prison. He is eventually elected to president of South Africa. Although South Africa has much work ahead of it, it has progressed. People are battle against crime, corruption, poverty and AIDS. Amandla is a great affirmation to the past and gives inspiring hope towards the future of South Africa. It captured moments in history, while still explaining the present problems that exist, including the process of rapprochement. This film also does a good job of explaining that music has, and always will, play an important role in the complicated history of South Africa.

Comparative Correlative - Definition and Examples

In grammar, a comparative correlative is a minor sentence pattern containing two corresponding phrases or clauses, each one headed by the and expressing a comparative: the X-er . . . the X-er or the X-er . . . the Y-er. The comparative correlative is also known as the correlative construction, the conditional comparative, or the the . . . the construction. Grammatically, the comparative correlative is a type of paired construction; rhetorically, the comparative correlative is often (but not always) a type of parison. Common Comparative Correlative Expressions The greater the risk, the greater the return.The harder you work, the harder it is to surrender.(American football coach Vince Lombardi)The deeper our sorrows, the louder well singLife is pure adventure, and the sooner we realize that, the quicker we will be able to treat life as art.(Maya Angelou, Wouldnt Take Nothing for My Journey Now. Random House, 1993)The more we do, the more we can do; the more busy we are, the more leisure we have.(William Hazlitt, The Spirit of the Age, 1825)The older the men are here, the more likely it is that they are wearing suits and ties.(John McPhee, Giving Good Weight. Giving Good Weight. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1979)The more you tighten your grip, Tarkin, the more star systems will slip through your fingers.(Carrie Fisher as Princess Leia Organa in Star Wars, 1977)The less we deserve good fortune, the more we hope for it.(Seneca)The greater your achievements, the less satisfactory your personal and domestic life will be.(Saul Bellow, More Die of Heartbreak. William Morrow, 1987)The more you pay attention to the richness of the world, the more you allow your interest to be absorbed by things outside of you, the more interesting a person you will become. And the more you pay attention to the world outside you, the more it gives back: by a kind of miracle, it will become a more interesting place.(Barbara Baig, How to Be a Writer: Building Your Creative Skills Through Practice and Play. Writers Digest Books, 2010) 'The More the Merrier' This construction — schematically [the X-er the Y-er] — is commonly referred to as the correlative construction (Culicover 1999: 83-5); Culicover and Jackendoff 1999; Fillmore, Kay, and OConnor 1988). It conveys that any increase (or decrease) in the value of X is associated with, and may even be construed as the cause of, an increase (or decrease) in the value of Y. A notable feature of the construction is the fact that the word the which features in it is not a determiner and is therefore not to be identified with the definite article the. Some instantiations of the construction: (16a) The more I know the more I worry.(16b) The less they have to say the more they talk.(16c) The bigger they are the harder they fall.(16d) The earlier you start the more you chance you have of being successful.(16e) The bigger the risk the bigger the payout.(16f) The less said the better. It is also worth noting that although the correlative construction is highly unusual, given the general principles of English syntax, it is not totally isolated from the rest of the language. There are, in fact, quite a few bipartite expressions in which the first element is presented as the cause, precondition, or explanation for the second. Like the correlative construction, these expressions lack a finite verb. Here are some examples: (17a) Garbage in, garbage out.(17b) Out of the frying pan (and) into the fire.(17c) Easy come, easy go.(17d) Cold hands, warm heart.(17e) Once bitten, twice shy.(17f) Out of sight, out of mind.(17g) Once a whinger, always a whinger.*(17h) One for me (and) one for you.(17i) First come, first served.(17j) Nothing ventured, nothing gained. * This expression instantiates the construction [ONCE A N, ALWAYS A N]. Examples from the BNC [British National Corpus] include once a Catholic, always a Catholic; once a Russian, always a Russian; once a misfit, always a misfit; once a dealer, always a dealer. The construction conveys that a person is not able to change their personality or their entrenched behaviour.(John R. Taylor, The Mental Corpus: How Language is Represented in the Mind. Oxford University Press, 2012) The . . . the (129) The more John eats the less he wants.This construction . . . is composed of two phrases, each of which expresses a comparative. Both may be of the form the more XP... , in which case the first is interpreted as a subordinate clause and the second as a main clause. Or, the first clause can simply contain a comparative, e.g. John wants less, in which case the first clause is interpreted as the main clause and the second is interpreted as a subordinate clause.Of particular relevance to the present discussion is the fact that the internal structure of the more . . . is sui generis, in the sense that the learner must simply acquire the knowledge that an expression of this form can be used in the way that we have described. As shown by Culicover and Jackendoff (1998), the more functions as an operator that binds a variable, and the chain that is formed is subject to the usual locality constraints. The form the more . . . must be initial in the clause, and cannot pied pipe a preposit ion...(Peter W. Culicover, Syntactic Nuts: Hard Cases, Syntactic Theory, and Language Acquisition. Oxford University Press, 1999) The Little Word 'the' (6) The more a student studies, the better grades she will receive.In English, both the first phrase and the second phrase obligatorily begin with the little word the. The unacceptability of (7a) is due to the absence of the in the first clause, in (7b) in the second clause, in (7c), the absence of the in both clauses unsurprisingly also results in unacceptability. (7a) * More a student studies, the better grades she will receive.(7b) * The more a student studies, better grades she will receive.(7c) * More a student studies, better grades she will receive. (Ronald P. Leow, Little Words: Their History, Phonology, Syntax, Semantics, Pragmatics, and Acquisition. Georgetown University Press, 2009)